Unit 5.1 DB: Direct Instruction or Constructivist Learning

he resources this week discuss direct instruction and constructivist learning. For this discussion, compare and contrast these two forms of teaching. Within your discussion, be sure to address the following questions:

What are the central concepts of each method?
What do you feel is the single most salient benefit for each method of teaching? The most notable disadvantage?
Does the appropriateness of using either of these primary teaching methods change according to student age level? Consider the grade level that you are most likely to teach (or currently work with if you are already teaching) and discuss which method you feel would be more appropriate for this level.
And finally, which method would you rely on more heavily as an intentional teacher? Why?
Be sure to include properly cited scholarly sources.

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EFFECTS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTIVISM ON LEARNERS’ CONGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Waitshega Tefo Smitta Moalosi

Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana,

BOTSWANA.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Direct instruction and Social constructivism are discussed in this paper as different

approaches that can enhance the learner’s cognitive development. Direct instruction

is teacher centered and the teacher is the director in the learning setting. Social

constructivism is learner centered and it enables learners to have ownership in

learning, and to develop their thinking more than those depending much on the

teacher guidance. This paper concludes that, social constructivism can have more

effect on the learner’s cognitive development than direct instruction. Learners will be able to share their ideas and collaborate with others to solve different problems they

encounter in the learning environment.

Keywords: Direct instructions, social constructivism, cognitive development

INTRODUCTION

The discussion in this paper is a comparison of Direct instruction and Social constructivism.

Direct instruction is a teacher centered approach while social constructivism is learner

centered. Teacher centered approaches makes the teacher to have more control in the

learning setting; and learners become passive recipients of information provided for them by

the teacher. In a learner-centered approach, learners construct knowledge and take

responsibility for their own learning. Social constructivism can enhance students’ learning

more than direct instruction approach. This reasoning is supported by discussing direct

instruction, and its four phases, social constructivism, and the four characteristics and situated

cognition.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Direct instruction is described as “an instructional model to teach well defined knowledge and skills needed for later learning” (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010, p. 409). Some examples of

direct instruction involve younger students using basic operations to solve math problems, students’ using grammar and punctuation in writing, and chemistry students’ balancing

equations. Eggen and Kauchak (2010) have found that direct instruction is effective when skills involve detailed steps. This is especially helpful in working with students who are low

achievers or with those with disabilities. A description of examples of a direct instruction

lesson are discussed below:

1. State learning objectives and orient students to learn the lesson: The teacher is expected to tell the students what they should be learning.

2. Review prerequisites: A revision of skills and concepts learned in previous lessons).

3. Present new materials: The teacher should is expected to present new information with examples to aid students’ learning.

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4. Conduct learning probes: Questions should be used to assess students’ level of

understanding (Slavin, 2012, p.185).

The above characteristics of direct lessons show that most work is done by the teacher.

The four phases of direct instruction are discussed (see Table below). The four phases of

direct instruction are cognitive in nature. Because the researchers mentioned below thought the four phases of direct instruction are related to human memory, it is important to discuss

them. This writer thinks that they represent a cognitive view of direct instruction. Eggen and

Kauchak (2010) suggested that, the model is cognitive and related to the human memory. The

above mentioned researcher’s findings are supported because one of the model’s cognitive

components, attention, is critical in human learning. Information from the environment

reaches the senses (sensory register) and then passes to the working memory when it is

attended to. It will be transferred to the Long-term memory where it will be stored

permanently. Learners can retrieve the information if they need to use it. Also, Eggen and

Kauchak (2010) proposed that Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of scaffolding is related to Direct

Instruction. Scaffolding is a process where an adult or an experienced peer help learners with

some activities, but when learners are capable of working alone; the adult should reduce

his/her guidance. (See the third phase of the model).

Table 1. Relationships between Phases and Cognitive Learning Components and Cognitive-

Based Direct Instruction (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010 p.410)

Phase Cognitive Learning Component

Introduction and Review: Teachers begin with form of introductory focus

and review previous work.

Attract attention

Access prior knowledge from long-term memory.

Developing Understanding:

Teachers describe and model the skill or explain

and present examples of the concept. Teachers

emphasize understanding.

Acquire declarative knowledge about the skill or

concept.

Encode declarative knowledge into long-term

memory.

Guided practice: Students practice the skill or

identify additional examples of the concept, and

the teacher provides scaffolding.

Move through the associative stage of developing

procedural knowledge.

Independent Practice: Students practice on their

own. Develop automaticity with the skill or concept.

The first phase Introduction and Review suggests that learning begins with attention. Students

are expected to pay attention in the beginning of the lesson. The teacher can find out the students’ opinions regarding the lesson by asking them to give descriptions of the ‘problem

asked’ and revise the work they have done to recover “prior knowledge from the long-term memory” (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010, p.411).

The second phase Developing Understanding focuses on the teacher as modeling the skills,

explaining and demonstrating how students should use the skills. In the second phase the

students obtain the ‘declarative and conditional knowledge’ that help them to be able to

adjust, and get used to applying knowledge in various situations. The declarative knowledge

contained in the Long-term memory is characterized by facts, concepts, procedures and rules

(Eggen and Kauchak, 2010).

Guided practice is emphasized in the third phase. Learners practice skills as teachers scaffold

them. The scaffolding metaphor suggests that teachers guide learners through the tasks that

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they are engaged in. As learners master the tasks, the teacher must reduce his/her assistance

so that learners can work by themselves without guidance.

The final phase is Independent Practice; the teacher assists students to shift from thinking

about the skill to ‘performing it automatically’. And it encourages responsibility in their

learning and reduces scaffolding as well. The teacher is expected to monitor students

learning. When the teacher monitors students in their learning, it may involve the power of

the teacher over students when working with them, which it is a limitation of the approach.

Social constructivism avoids this limitation by encouraging students take responsibility in

their learning.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Social constructivism is an aspect of constructivism that suggests that “learners first construct

knowledge in a social context and then individually internalize it” (Eggen and Kauchak,

2010, p. 227). Social constructivism is a process by which more knowledgeable adults or

experienced peers provide guidance which leads to transmission of knowledge so that higher

mental functions and develop in the social learning environment.

Social constructivism helps us to understand the teacher’s role in the learning setting. Teachers use the question methods with instructions and they organize and use learning

activities, motivating and assessing students. The main focus of the social constructivism approach is to facilitate “students’ constructions of knowledge using social interaction”

Flemingo and Alexander (as cited in Eggen & Kauchak, 2010 p.349).

The social constructivism view is, when the learning environment is created by

knowledgeable others, learners have the ability to exchange their ideas as well as collaborate

with others to solve problems. Santrock, (2009) added “in this way, experience in social

contexts provide an important mecha nism for the development of students’ thinking” (p.349). And teacher- centered approaches enable the teacher to be in control of the learning

environment and conditions learners to receive knowledge prepared for them. Therefore, the students’ efforts to create knowledge for themselves are constrained. Learners need to

develop cognitive processes and critical thinking; they ought to be exposed to learning environments that enhance construction of knowledge.

Social constructivists agree on the four characteristics, and the four characteristics have

implications for Cognitive education because social constructivist’s major principle is

“learners construct, rather than record, knowledge” (Eggen and Kauchak 2010, p. 230).

Other theorists believe “the view of the learner has changed from that of a recipient of

knowledge to that of a constructor of knowledge” (p. 230). The characteristics are discussed

below:

Four Characteristics of Social Constructivists

Learners are viewed as creating knowledge that makes sense to them and having control in

their learning. They are perceived as having changed from receiving knowledge from more

knowledgeable others to constructors of knowledge. Eggen and Kauchak (2010) proposed

that “Learners construct knowledge that makes sense to them” (p.230).

New learning depends on what the learners understand. Learning is perceived as meaningful

and social constructivists stress prior knowledge in facilitating learning. Eggen and Kauchak,

2010) suggested that, the emphases from social constructivists, learners develop thoughts to

construct knowledge and are embedded in the existing knowledge they have. Therefore, “new

learning depends on current understanding” (p.230).

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Learners are perceived as learning from each other and sharing ideas. Interacting with adults

or experienced peers students learn how to solve different kinds of problems. Thus, “Social

interaction facilitates learning” (Eggen and Kauchak (2010 p.230).

The internalization theory of Vygotsky proposed that children learn first by being engaged in

the activities under adult support and with time they continue to perform activities alone.

Therefore, the behavior will be viewed as first regulated socially by instruction of adults, and

then become regulated on their mental plane (Brynes, 2008).

The fourth idea that social constructivists suggested has an influence in learning is real- world tasks. Their perspectives on the above mentioned idea are rooted in situated cognition. They

proposed that most of what is learned is explicit to the setting in which “it is learned.” Anderson et al., (as cited in Eggen and Kauchak, 2010, p. 230). Real world tasks are also

called authentic tasks, learning activities where a student put into practice thinking that is

related to what is essential in the world Eggen & Kauchak, 2010).

Thinking is significant: Authentic activities are activities that promote thinking as well as problem –solving skills. Authentic activities are important in school and out of school setting.

“The most meaningful learning occurs within real-world tasks” (p.230). For example, when students use their knowledge of science to explain the importance of wearing seat belts when

driving; it is an example of including authentic learning activities (Eggen and kauchak 2010).

Situated cognition is related to the most meaningful learning discussed above. Learners are

perceived as ‘learning by participation’ borrowed from Lave & Wenger (1991). The school

setting is a place where learning is situated.

Situated Cognition

Situated cognition is vital in the social constructivist perspective; it implies that thinking is

situated in the social and physical environment not in the person’s mind (Santrock 2009). On one hand knowledge is rooted in, and related to the environment “in which the knowledge

is developed” (Santrock, 2009 p.350). The cognitive view perceives knowledge as possession while the socio-cultural sees knowledge as “belonging, participating and communicating”

Mason, 2007, p.3) Their explanations suggest that knowledge is not an ‘entity’ in the head of an individual, which the individual can obtain, develop or modify, but an action that cannot

be thought of as disconnected from the environment in which it takes place. The classroom is

“a community of learners” the teachers and students do joint work of learning together

aiming at assisting other individuals to achieve their goal in the learning environment Eggen

and Kauchak, 2010).

CONCLUSION

Direct instruction and social constructivism of knowledge differ in relation to student

learning. Direct instruction approach can contribute less input for learners in their

construction of knowledge. Direct instruction approach does not enhance much of

individual’s cognitive abilities. Social constructivists advocate for creation of learning

settings where learners share ideas and work in collaboration with each other solving

different problems they encounter as they learn.

The key element is the teacher has to make sure the type of learning where students construct

knowledge happens. Also, students are involved with others as they learn. They have the

chance of evaluating and improving their understanding through interaction and “exposed to

the thinking of others and as they participate in creating and understanding” (Santrock 2009,

p.350). When students interact and assist each other in learning; their cognitive abilities

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increase and are free as the learning environment becomes conducive. It is cooperative work

and learning. Cooperative learning happens when students are engaged in small groups

helping each other in the learning setting. Students are encouraged to work in pairs or groups

not exceeding four members. Ashman and Conway, 1997) add “the aim is to ensure that students work together to maximize their own and other group members’ learning” (p. 143).

The four characteristics social constructivists agree on stress that learners create meaningful

knowledge. When learners create knowledge that makes sense is motivated to learn by them.

Situated cognition is significant in the social construction of knowledge, it implies that

thinking is located (situated) within the social and physical environment not within the

learner’s mind. The learner’s knowledge is “embedded in” attached to the environment where

knowledge is developing. (Santrock, 2009, p. 350)

REFERENCES

[1] Ashman, F. & Conway, R. N. F. (1997) an introduction to cognitive education: theory

and applications. London: Routledge.

[2] Brynes, J. P. (2008) Cognitive development and learning: instructional contexts.

London: Pearson, Educational Inc.

[3] Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2010) Educational psychology: windows on classroom

(eight edition). London: Pearson Education, Inc.

[4] Lave J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation.

Cambridge: University Press.

[5] Manson, L. (2007) Introduction: bridging the cognitive and socio-cultural approaches

in research on conceptual change: is it feasible? Educational psychologist, 42(1), 1-7.

[6] Santrock, J. W. (2009) Educational psychology (4 th Edition). London: Mc Graw- Hill.

[7] Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology (10 th

edition). London: Pearson.

[8] Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in the society: the development of higher psychological

processes. Harvard University Press.

AUTHOR’s PROFILE

Dr. Waitshega Tefo Smitta Moalosi is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana. She teaches courses in Educational Psychology. Dr.

Moalosi started teaching in the University of Botswana in January, 2000 as a Staff

Development Fellow (SDF).

Dr. Moalosi holds the following qualifications: a) PhD in Educational Psychology and Research, University of Tennessee, Knoxville (USA), b) M.ED Psychology of Education,

Bristol University, (England UK), c) BSc Psychology, Bolton Institute of Higher Education (England UK). Diploma in Counseling Studies, Keele University, (England UK). d)Primary

Teachers Certificate, Serowe Teacher Training College, Botswana.

Smitta’s research interests are: Teacher efficacy and classroom management, reasons for

choosing teaching as a career, self- concept and adolescent development.

Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 7

The Effective Lesson

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Organizing Questions

What Is Direct Instruction?

How Is a Direct Instruction Lesson Taught?

How Does Research on Direct Instruction Methods Inform Teaching?

How Do Students Learn and Transfer Concepts?

How are Discussions Used in Instruction?

What Is Direct Instruction?

At times, the most effective and efficient way to teach students is for you to present information, skills, or concepts in a direct fashion.

The term direct instruction is used to describe lessons in which you transmit information directly to students, structuring class time to reach a clearly defined set of objectives as efficiently as possible.

Direct instruction is particularly appropriate for teaching a well-defined body of information or skills that all students must master.

How Is a Direct Instruction Lesson Taught?

The general lesson structure is vastly different in different subject areas and different grade levels.

The sequence of activities in direct instruction flows along a logical path:

arousing student interest

presenting new information

allowing students to practice their new knowledge or skills

assessment

This orderly progression is essential to direct instruction at any grade level and in any subject, although various components look different for different subjects and grades.

State Learning Objectives

The first step in presenting a lesson is to state learning objectives and orient students to the lesson.

Tell students what they will be learning and what performance will be expected of them.

Whet students’ appetites for the lesson by informing them how interesting, important, or personally relevant it will be to them.

Give an astonishing or exciting opener that gets kids eager to learn the content.

Review Prerequisites

For the next major task in a lesson, you need to ensure that students have mastered prerequisite skills.

Go over any skills or concepts students need in order to understand the lesson.

Link information that is already in their minds to the information you are about to present.

Present New Material

Here begins the main body of the lesson, the point at which you present new information or skills.

In this step you teach the lesson by:

presenting information

giving examples

demonstrating concepts

Conduct Learning Probes

Effective teaching requires you to be constantly aware of the effects of your instruction.

In this stage you conduct learning probes.

The term learning probe refers to any of a variety of ways of asking for brief student responses to lesson content.

To conduct a learning probe you will pose questions to students to assess their level of understanding and correct misconceptions.

Provide Independent Practice

The term independent practice refers to work students do in class on their own to practice or express newly learned skills or knowledge.

In this step of the lesson you will give students an opportunity to practice new skills or use new information on their own.

Independent practice is most critical when students are learning skills, such as mathematics, reading, grammar, composition, map interpretation, or a foreign language.

Assess Performance and Provide Feedback

Every lesson should contain an assessment of the degree to which students have mastered the objectives set for the lesson.

You should assess the effectiveness of the lesson and give the results of the assessment to students as soon as possible.

Steps in this process:

review independent practice work or give a quiz

give feedback on correct answers

reteach skills if necessary

Provide Distributed Practice and Review

Practice or review spaced out over time increases retention of many kinds of knowledge.

Steps in this process:

assign homework to provide distributed practice on the new material

in later lessons, review material

provide practice opportunities to increase the chances that students will remember what they learned and also be able to apply it in different circumstances

How Does Research on Direct Instruction Methods Inform Teaching?

Most of the principles of direct instruction discussed in this chapter have been derived from process-product studies in which observers record the teaching practices of teachers whose students consistently achieve at a high level.

Although the research on direct instruction models has produced mixed conclusions, most researchers agree that the main elements of these models are essential minimum skills that all teachers should have.

How do Students Learn and Transfer Concepts?

A very large proportion of all lessons focus on teaching concepts.

A concept is an abstract idea that is generalized from specific examples.

Concepts are generally learned in one of two ways:

most concepts we learn outside of school we learn by observation

other concepts are typically learned by definition: for example it is very difficult to learn the concept Aunt or Uncle through observation

Teaching for Transfer of Learning (1 of 2)

Transfer of learning from one situation to another depends on two factors:

the degree to which the information or skills were learned in the original situation

the degree of similarity between the situation in which the skill or concept was learned and the situation to which it is to be applied

Teaching for Transfer of Learning (2 of 2)

Initial learning and understanding: One of the most important factors in transfer of a skill or concept from one situation to another is how well it was learned in the first place.

Learning in context: the ability to apply knowledge in new circumstances depends on the variety of circumstances in which we have learned or practiced the information or skill.

How are Discussions Used in Instruction? (1 of 2)

You can use discussions as part of instruction for many reasons. Discussions lend themselves to:

subjective and controversial topics

difficult and novel concepts

affective objectives

attitudinal objectives

How are Discussions Used in Instruction (2 of 2)

Whole-class discussion differs from a usual lesson because the teacher plays a less dominant role.

Small-group discussion students work in four-to-six member groups to discuss a particular topic, and the teacher moves from group to group, aiding the discussion.

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Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 8

Student-Centered and Constructivist Approaches to Instruction

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Organizing Questions

What is the Constructivist View of Learning?

How is Cooperative Learning Used in Instruction?

How are Problem-Solving and Thinking Skills Taught?

What Is the Constructivist View of Learning

Constructivists believe that knowing is a process and learners must individually and actively discover and transform complex information to make it their own.

Constructivist approaches emphasize top-down processing, when students begin with complex problems and discover the basic knowledge and skills to solve them.

Constructivist approaches also emphasize cooperative learning, questioning or inquiry strategies, and other metacognitive skills.

Historical Roots of Constructivism

The constructivist revolution has deep roots in the history of education.

It draws heavily on the work of Piaget and Vygotsky both of whom emphasized that cognitive change takes place only when previous conceptions go through a process of disequilibration in light of new information.

Constructivism theories have been used to support classroom instructional methods that emphasize cooperative learning, project-based learning, and discovery.

Top-Down Processing

Constructivist approaches to teaching emphasize top-down rather than bottom-up instruction.

The term top-down means that students begin with complex problems to solve and then work out or discover (with your guidance) the basic skills required.

For example, students might be asked to write compositions and only later learn about spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

Peer Interaction

Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make extensive use of interaction among students of the same age.

A constructivist approach relies on the theory that students will more easily discover and comprehend difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems.

Peer interaction involves groups of peers modeling appropriate ways of thinking and exposing and challenging each other’s misconceptions.

Discovery Learning

Discovery learning is an important component of modern constructivist approaches with a long history in education innovation.

In discovery learning, students are encouraged to learn largely on their own through active involvement with concepts and principles.

Teachers encourage students to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to discover principles for themselves.

Self-Regulated Learning

A self-regulated learner is one who has knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them.

Self-regulated learners know how to:

break complex problems into simpler steps

test out alternative solutions they know

read for deep understanding

write to persuade

write to inform

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a practice based on Vygotsky’s concept of assisted learning.

According to Vygotsky, higher mental functions, including the ability to direct memory and attention in a purposeful way and to think in symbols, are mediated behaviors.

In assisted learning or mediated learning, the teacher is the cultural agent who guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning.

Constructivist Methods in the Content Areas

Constructivist approaches in reading include:

Reciprocal teaching: the teacher works with small groups of learners and models the types of questions students should ask themselves while reading.

Questioning the author: children are taught to see the authors of factual material as real, fallible people and to engage in simulated “dialogues” with the authors.

Constructivist approaches are also used in writing, math, and science.

Research on Constructivist Methods

Research comparing constructivist and traditional approaches to instruction is often difficult to interpret.

Constructivist methods are very diverse.

Outcomes are qualitatively different from those of traditional methods.

More research is needed on constructivist approaches to determine when they are most effective for enhancing achievement.

How Is Cooperative Learning Used in Instruction? (1 of 2)

In cooperative learning, small groups of students work together to help one another learn.

Cooperative learning groups are used in:

Discovery learning

Discussion

Study for assessment

How Is Cooperative Learning Used in Instruction? (2 of 2)

Cooperative learning programs such as Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (S T A D) are successful because they reward both group and individual effort and improvement and because groups are responsible for the individual learning of each group member.

S T A D groups are mixed in:

performance level

gender

ethnicity

Cooperative Learning Methods

In cooperative learning instructional methods, or peer-assisted learning, students work together in small groups to help each other learn.

most involve students in four-member mixed-ability groups

some methods use dyads

some use varying group sizes

Typically, students are assigned to cooperative groups and stay together for many weeks or months.

Cooperative Learning Skills

Students are taught specific skills that will help them work well together, such as:

listening actively

giving good explanations

avoiding putdowns

including other people

Research on Cooperative Learning

Group study methods are used primarily when students work together to help one another master a relatively well-defined body of information or skills.

Project-based learning or active learning involves students working in groups to create a report, experiment, mural, or other product.

Studies of cooperative learning methods that incorporate group goals and individual accountability show substantial positive effects on the achievement of students in grades 2 through 12.

How Are Problem-Solving and Thinking Skills Taught?

Students need the ability to use information and skills to solve problems.

They might be quite good at adding, subtracting, and multiplying but have little idea how to solve a word or story problem in mathematics.

For example: “Sylvia bought four hamburgers at $1.25 each, two orders of French fries at 65 cents each, and three large sodas at 75 cents each. How much change did she get from a $10 bill?.”

The Problem-Solving Process

Students can be taught several well-researched strategies to use in solving problems. I D E A L is an acronym for a five-step problem solving strategy:

I D E A L

I Identify problems and opportunities

Define goals and represent the problem

Explore possible strategies

A Anticipate outcomes and act

L Look back and learn

Teaching Creative Problem Solving

Creative problem solving requires:

incubation time

suspension of judgment

conducive climates

problem analysis

the application of thinking skills

feedback

Teaching Thinking Skills

Thinking skills include:

planning, classifying, divergent thinking, identifying assumptions, recognizing misleading information, and generating questions.

Thinking skills can be taught through structured programs; creating a culture of thinking in the classroom is another useful technique.

Critical Thinking

One key objective of schooling is enhancing students’ abilities to think critically and make rational decisions about what to do or what to believe.

Examples of critical thinking include:

identifying misleading advertisements

weighing competing evidence

identifying assumptions or fallacies in arguments

As with any other objective, learning to think critically requires practice.

Unit 5.1 DB: Direct Instruction or Constructivist Learning

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